Faculty of Letters

As ruínas emergem enquanto alegoria pro meio da representação do que a edificação uma vez foi, contudo não mais o é. Também é um monumento do presente e por isso existe em correlação com a vivência das cidades e suas memórias. As ruínas, deste modo, apresentam-se como um fator de afirmações coletivas, individuais e/ou nacionais a partir de sentimentos despertados por este " morto " que luta por sobrevivência e vida na sociedade a qual pertence. Neste trabalho, buscamos, então, compreender o patrimônio histórico-cultural e o debate de sua preservação a partir do pensamento de John Ruskin, Eugène Viollet-le-duc e Cesare Brandi em relação com a ação prática voltada, mais especificamente, para a ruína. A fim de, com isto, entender até onde se pode ter e vivenciar as ruínas na sociedade – um morto que vive na mesma mediante a alegoria. Abstract The ruins emerge as an allegory through representation of what the building once was, but now it isn't anymore. Also, they are a monument of the present and, therefore, exist in relation with the quotidian of cities and its memories. The ruins present themselves as an element of the collective, individual and national affirmations from the feelings brought up by this " dead " that struggles for survival and life in its society. In this work, we search to understand the historical and cultural patrimony and its preservation debate through the studies of John Ruskin, Eugène Viollet-le-duc and Cesare Brandi in relation to the practical action towards, specifically, the ruins. It's aimed, in this paper, to comprehend the limits and implications in the existence of ruin in the society – the dead that lives through allegory.

With the enthronement of Charles II who was exposed to the libertine French culture of the mid-Seventeenth Century for about nine years, English Drama which had been austerely restrained between the strict years 1649 and 1660 of the English Interregnum, as a reaction to the severity of the Puritan code of the Commonwealth Period, gave birth to a very elegant, lively style of entertainment: Comedy of Manners. This new satirical narrative genre brought onto the stage considerably different, new modes of heroes consisting of morally light, libertine, foppish rakes of the upper class society. With the dethronement of James II, and after Jeremy Collier's famous "Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage", another novelty as the displacing response to the tone of the Restoration plays sprang up and flourished throughout the Eighteenth Century: Sentimental Comedy. The new moralistic genre made great contributions to the stage in the sense of its virtuous, dramatically amusing, emotional heroes. Placing a particular emphasis on comparisons between plays, the aim of this paper is to spotlight the concepts of "ideological hero" for the English society within the comedies after the Cromwellian Era in relation to vivid examples from the best representative plays of respectively Comedy of Manners and Sentimental Comedy: Sir George Etherege's "The Man of Mode" and Sir Richard Steele's "The Conscious Lovers".

New Historicism asserts historiography as the interpretation of the past with a present mind because a direct transcription from reality to fiction is contemporaneous. Since the social, individual, cultural, and historical reality of the past can never be known in precise detail and scope, the knowledge of the past can never be claimed “objective”; therefore, history is only to be known as a discursive reconstruction of the past in narrativity through which any of its conception is accessible. Both history and narrativity are subjected to fictional strategies of writing, and display verbal representations of visual representations of realities in the past. As Hayden White states in order to construct a coherent account of the past and to summon all into the service of truth, not only authors but also historians have to make selections from the accumulation and storage of verifiable, fragmented and discontinuous facts by using the metaphorical aesthetics of eloquence. This struggle to create a conclusive, absolute historical truth is interrogated, challenged, and subverted by historiographic metafiction. That nouveau form, Linda Hutcheon also argues, suggests multiple truths, points of views, and rare falsehoods. It opens the past to the present to re-write and re-present it in fiction and history as in Raymond Federman’s "To Whom It May Concern". The novel’s author trying to make sense of the past using and trusting on his memory problematises the issue and dichotomy of historical knowledge by irony and the discursive narrative process of fictionalisation. This paper will analyse and argue about the notion of history as a form of fiction, a story about reality, and takes the historical facts into consideration as subjective realities in the lights of White’s and Hutcheon’s views of the topic, addressing to notable instances from "To Whom It May Concern" by Federman.

The Scottish history has witnessed various significant political changes which have not been avoided to take place in the Scottish drama since the sixteenth century. However, the form of the plays which have been able to reach at the Scottish people has the characteristics of provocative discourse and propagandist awareness-raising as they can be seen in Sir David Lindesay’s morality play "Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estaits, in Commendation of Vertew and Vitvperation of Vyce" (1552) and John McGrath’s political play "The Cheviot, The Stag, and The Black, Black Oil" (1973). Since Lindesay’s and McGrath’s plays employ the elements of the “agit-prop” theatre, it is requisite to focus on this “militant form of art”. The agit-prop theatre aims at raising the consciousness of the masses and organising its spectators which generally belong to the lower or working class to take action for economic and political situations affecting their lives by means of inducing certain ideologies through emotional and realistic representations on stage. In terms of its aspects like the mobilisation attempt for the betterment of the public and plays’ characters as the representatives of the institutions, the agit-prop resembles to the morality plays of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In the light of the information above, this paper attempts to analyse the use of uncomplicated public language and simplistic devices on the Scottish stage with specific references to the Scottish history and significant examples from Lindesay’s and McGrath’s plays.

Utopias, stemming from the hope for better circumstances to survive in, have provided alternative lands replacing violently discontent conditions of their related eras. As the first examples of the genre “utopia”, "The Republic" (c. 380 BC) by Plato who centres on the nature of justice mirrors Athens in the first quarter of the 4th century BC and "Utopia" (1516) by Sir Thomas More meditating on the nature of politics projects England in the early 16th century. The characteristics of these fictive narratives essentially refers to the “contrasting counter-concept” of how the case actually is by intermediating political turmoil and social upheaval of both eras of the Athenian and English societies. Therefore, it can be claimed that Plato and More attempt to fictionalise the notion of their times’ accounts by visualising the idealised living conditions shaped by justice and philosophical minds. However, the austerely restraint criteria handled to create idealised worlds inevitably and paradoxically enough disclose the anti-factual reasoning of the concept of history in accordance with the interposing relationships of, hidden references to and dependencies on the historical facts and their counter narratives in "the Republic" and "Utopia". As Hayden White also declares in “The Future of Utopia in History”, history can be rightfully perceived as the “other” of utopia with expectations of experience and alteration. Placing a particular emphasis on the backgrounds of and revealing distinctive instances from the primary representative utopias by Plato and More about the connections between expectations of utopias as the counter-historical accounts and the time’s facts, the aim of this paper is to articulate the “intermediary nature of utopia” in terms of both representing the reminiscences of the problematic eras in the fictive lands and also effecting the continuum of the present actions in the real ones.

Utopias, stemming from the hope for better circumstances to survive in, have provided alternative lands replacing violently discontent conditions of their related eras. As the first examples of the genre “utopia”, "The Republic" (c. 380 BC) by Plato who centres on the nature of justice mirrors Athens in the first half of the 4th century BC and "Utopia" (1516) by Sir Thomas More meditating on the nature of politics projects England in the early 16th century. Political turmoil and social upheaval of both eras leading to the compositions of these works prove the fact that the discourse and practice of violence turn into a prevalent order for the Athenian and English societies. Thereafter, Plato and More attempt to alter that notion of violence in accordance with the idealised living conditions shaped by justice and philosophical minds. However, the austerely restraint criteria handled to create idealised lands inevitably and paradoxically enough disclose the hidden reasoning of the concept of violence in "the Republic" and "Utopia". As Karl R. Popper and Walter Benjamin indicates, these promising utopias prepare an environment of violence on a large scale when they are imagined to be carried into practice due to sheltering the possibility of transforming to the most likely “corruptible utopias.” Placing a particular emphasis on the backgrounds of and revealing distinctive instances from the primary representative utopias by Plato and More about the nature of “law-making” and “law-maintaining” violence, the aim of this paper is to articulate the “in-between nature of utopia” in terms of both getting away from the “existing” social and psychological applications of violence in the real world and also getting close to the “fictionalised” violence in the utopias.

Japon film yapımcılarının 20. yüzyılın başlarında çeşitli animasyon tekniklerini keşfetmesiyle ortaya çıkan ve zamanla film sektöründe Japon canlandırma tekniklerinin oluşmasını sağlayan animeler, özellikle 1990’lar ve 2000’ler itibariyle dünya çapında ilgi uyandırmış olup kendisiyle beraber pek çok ticari sektörün gelişmesine katkıda bulunmuştur. Günümüzde görsel ve hareketli medya endüstrisinin % 10 gibi önemli bir oranını elinde tutan “anime”ler ulaştığı milyonlar ve içerisinde işlediği temalar bakımından çocuk edebiyatı bağlamında önemli bir yer tutmaya başlamış bulunmaktadır. Animelerin yetişmesinde ortak olduğu nesillere sağladığı faydalar bakımından, 21. yüzyılın başlıca sorunlarından bir tanesi olan doğa-insan ilişkisi de bu temalardan bir tanesi olup insan-doğa ilişkilerine eleştirel bir bakış açısı sunan disiplinler arası bir bakış açısıyla çevre ve edebiyat alanlarının bütünleşik çalışmalarını yürüten ekoeleştiri alanının kapsamına girmektedir. Masashi Kishimoto’nun yazıp Hayato Date’nin yönettiği "Naruto" (2002-2007) ve "Naruto Shippuden" (2007-…) adlı animeler de, kendi çıkarları için doğanın dengeli işleyişini değiştiren ve bozan insan türünün doğaya ve doğadaki insan olmayan varlıklara yaklaşımını retrospektif ve analitik bir izlekte ele almakta olup insan türünün doğal ve doğaüstü hayvanlara yaklaşımını ilgi çekici unsurlarla aktarmaktadır. Bu sebeple, "Naruto" anime serisi insan olmayan hayvanların ve ekosistemlerin insan merkezli yaklaşımdan olabildiğince uzak incelenmesinde teknokrasi ve ilkelcilik arasındaki çekişmeye takılmaksızın kat edilebilecek yolu aydınlatır. Üstteki bilgiler ışığında, bu yazının amacı ustalıkla doğayı medeniyet içerisinde sorun olan her şeyin karşısında duran bir öge olarak ekofobik bir anlayışla kötüleştirip ötekileştiren insan türünün "Naruto" ve "Naruto Shippuden" adlı animelerde canavarlaştırılmış doğa imgesinin temsilini çökertmekte olduğunu ve hayvan hakları ile doğaya karşı sorumluluk sahibi olan medyanın anime izleyicileri üzerindeki olumlayıcı çabalarını ifade etmektir.

With the continuous socio-economic and political developments in Britain from the sixteen century onwards, it is clear to observe the repercussions of the changes in society with different levels of industrialisation and urbanisation over time and the effects of the Restoration of the English Monarchy in 1660, the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the Union of England and Scotland, and the expansive Colonisation. The outcomes of these radical changes affected the seventeenth century’s literary characteristics, especially the stage arts and the mind-set of the authors for stage. Comedy of manners which was the most prevalent form of theatre in the seventeenth century turned into a more sentimentalised version in the eighteenth century with the consequences of the above-mentioned events and the male characters in these comedies began to adopt different roles, in both private and social spheres, transforming from free spirited, liberal, morally light ones into cynical, domesticated and conservative ones. The representations of actual people on stage, thus, showed that the roles carried by men altered and the understanding of upper-class masculinity shifted to a totally different direction. Under the light of theories of masculinities developed by R. W. Connell, John Tosh, Máirtín Mac an Ghall, Michèle Cohen, and Michael S. Kimmel, the aim of this paper is to articulate the “reformed” masculinities of the male characters such as libertine heroes and rakes within Oliver Goldsmith’s "She Stoops to Conquer" (1771) in terms of changes in men’s ways of thought and manners during the above-mentioned timespan.

The aim of this study is to examine the historical evolution of the British aristocratic and upper-class masculinities from the Restoration period to the late-Victorian era with respect to the theories of men and masculinities and to make an analysis of the transformation of these masculinities in such representative comedies of manners as George Etherege’s "The Man of Mode; or, Sir Fopling Flutter" (1676), Oliver Goldsmith’s "She Stoops to Conquer; or, the Mistakes of a Night" (1773) and Oscar Wilde’s "Lady Windermere’s Fan, or a Play about a Good Woman" (1892). These plays reflect the specific representations and manners of masculinities of their ages. For this reason, at the beginning of the thesis, concepts in the theories of men and masculinities are introduced in order to provide a theoretical background for the analysis of these male characters.

In the first section of the introduction, the development of the studies of men and masculinities is scrutinised with reference to the processes of the problematisation of the concept of masculinity and the challenges mounted to compulsory heterosexuality. Then, the description of hegemonic masculinities is established with regard to the paradigm of masculinity and other gender concepts. In the context of the comedy of manners, the second section deals with British masculinities from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth in relation to certain political events British society experienced like the Civil War, the Glorious Revolution, colonialism, and Industrial Revolution.

In the first chapter of the work, the notion of libertine masculinity is discussed with an emphasis on its socio-cultural significance in relation to the Restoration comedy of manners. Then, it provides an in-depth analysis of George Etherege’s "The Man of Mode." It is argued that libertine culture is the indicator of the masculine hegemony in the context of the Restoration social status.

The second chapter combines the eighteenth-century criticism of the libertines’ licentiousness and their representations on the stage. These criticisms are argued to have provided the basis for the Puritan sentimentalism which would dominate English society for more than a century. In line with this new politics of manners, it is discussed that few new comedies of manners have been produced and staged, one of which was "She Stoops to Conquer" by Oliver Goldsmith, the others being "The Rivals" (1775) and "The School for Scandal" (1777) by Richard Brinsley Sheridan. With regard to the defamiliarisation of the stage from the plays of the previous century due to the sentimental concerns of the Whig Puritans, the aristocratic and upper-class male characters in Goldmith’s play are depicted as embodying the elements of sentimental masculinity and libertinism which was refined with sentimental morality and manners.

In the third chapter of the thesis, it is contended that by means of the changing economic power in the nineteenth-century society, the middle classes prevailed over upper classes, and this caused the devolution of drama. It is argued that the new norms of manners enabled the birth of a new aristocratic and upper-class masculinity defined as dandy. At the end of the Victorian era, Oscar Wilde provided the first comedy of manners of the age with "Lady Windermere’s Fan" which includes a multiplicity of dandy characters. Thus, it is discussed in this chapter that, within the framework of hegemonic masculinities, the characters of the play present the transformation of manliness which was primarily concerned with sentimental morality, but later on shaped by the capitalist economic interests.

In the conclusion of this thesis, it is stated, in relation to certain socio-political experiences in Britain, that these three comedies provide a panorama of the metamorphosis of aristocratic and upper-class masculinities which has begun with libertine masculinity, fused with the sentimental, and been remodelled as the dandy.

After an eighteen-year theatrical hiatus due to the Civil War, England witnessed the revival of performative arts with the Restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660. In view of the fact that the Civil War was a hegemony struggle between two masculinities – aristocratic and Parliamentarian – to determine the future of the country, the Restoration was a period in which the king and his courtiers, upon their return from France, attempted hard to re-establish a noble, aristocratic and upper-class masculinity which would be known as “libertinism.” In theatre, the genre of comedy of manners was created in which new codes of manliness were presented to the society with the character of rake. Under the light of theories of men and masculinities, this paper, thus, aims to articulate the libertine masculinity given in George Etherege’s "The Man of Mode" (1676) in the socio-political context of the Restoration.

The last decade of the nineteenth century is seen to have embedded the beginnings of the break-up with the century’s ideals and values in Britain. In terms of its artistic and literary representation, modernist novelists also contributed to express this separation from the traditional by means of drawing the struggles of modern individuals like men’s liminal status between normative imperial British masculinity and attunement to the new socio-political codes. It can be asserted that Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) is one of these early, “unconventional,” or modernist, writers, and his "Lord Jim" (1900) provides quite an amount of information about a man’s desires, disillusionment and failures during his life at the turn of the century. With an illustration of how the domination of the nineteenth-century middle-class values shattered, the aim of this paper is to scrutinise the process of Lord Jim’s individualisation process through reconstruction of his masculinity from the ashes of the previous imperial one.

John Osborne writes his historically political play, "A Patriot for Me" in 1965 – in the critical decade which saw the end of stage censorship –, focusing on a significant double agent during the First World War, Alfred Redl. The play sheds light upon the intriguing correlation between the nature of espionage and attributions to and connotations of male homosexuality in the early twentieth century. Conforming his behaviours to the traditional roles of masculinities under the gaze of military officers of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the protagonist Redl reflects the illustration of marginalised male gender roles within the order of hegemonic masculinities. In addition to emphasising the play’s significant role in the process of the abolishment of censorship in 1968, the aim of this paper is to scrutinise the relationship between homosexuality and treachery within the institute of espionage by relating these issues to Alfred Redl’s life.

It is contended that, by means of the changing economic power in the nineteenth-century society, the middle classes prevailed over upper classes in Britain, and they hence established their concept of Victorian masculinity on the basis of imperialism. However, the last decade of the Victorian era witnessed the transformation of this imperial manliness that was primarily concerned with sentimental morality and later shaped by the capitalist economic interests into dandyism that was embellished with aesthetically affected codes of masculinity against the hypocrisy of the Victorian era. Therefore, this article first establishes the definition and characteristics of Victorian imperial masculinity in relation to the disciplines of gender, politics and medicine, and then delves into the concept and decade of decadence which was represented by Oscar Wilde, and his literary and critical works. Subsequently, the poetics of dandyism, as the new epitome of masculinity in this decade, is articulated with its philosophical foundations as Charles Pierre Baudelaire and Jules Amédée Barbey d’Aurevilly define. Having been affected from such philosophers, Oscar Wilde, as the artistic representation of dandiacal masculinity in Britain at the end of the nineteenth century, also presents dandy men in his plays like "Lady Windermere’s Fan" (1892). In this comedy, one can find various codes of a dandy’s masculine preoccupations and principles with a wide range of male characters. In keeping with these attitudes, the article will underline the fall of Victorian ideals in the formation of manliness and the rise of a further individualistic and artistic mode of masculinity.

Utopias stem from the hope for better circumstances to live in and to provide alternative lands replacing discontent conditions of their related eras. While one of the first examples of the utopia genre, "The Republic" (c. 380 BC) by Plato focusing on the nature of justice mirrors Athens in the first quarter of the fourth century BC, "Utopia" (1516) by Sir Thomas More meditating on the nature of politics projects England in the early sixteenth century. The characteristics of these fictive narratives essentially refer to the historical realities of both the Athenian society and the English one. The imagined lands portrayed by Plato and More focus on the political turmoil and social upheaval of their eras; thus, the authors’ attempt to refine and re-shape the systems and institutions in their real lands by means of idealised conditions which are fundamentally shaped by justice and philosophy. At that point, the relationship between the concepts of history and utopia needs to be examined because these two concepts are mostly accepted as opposite notions. It is a common understanding that history is concerned with the past and utopia is concerned with the future. For that reason, history is perceived as the ‘other’ of utopia which could potentially create positively different experiences in the future of the society in question. The aim of this paper is, first, to place a particular emphasis on the backgrounds of the primary representative utopias by Plato and More and to reveal distinctive instances about the connections between utopian proposals and historical facts. Then, the go-between/intermediary notion of utopia in terms of benefiting from the past events will be analysed, along with examining historical problems with the recommendations and reformative solutions for the future given in these utopias.

In the context of unstable gender hierarchies, the hierarchical relations of and socio-political hegemonies in masculinities have attracted the attention of many scholars, theoreticians, and researchers since the last quarter of the twentieth century. Theatre as a particular kind of social space to reveal problematised gender issues has functions that are not merely representational, but also transactional. While performing masculinities, theatrical works expect and rely on an imaginative contract between the actors/playwrights and the spectators/readers. Within the framework of a wider economy – both a literal economy and an economy of meaning, theatrical transaction enables one to (re)locate the exploration of historical masculinities which portrays a man as an independent individual, or a member of a certain group. Following the above-mentioned relations between the theatre and masculinities, this paper will firstly attempt to articulate the emergence of the study of masculinities as a critique of compulsory heterosexuality. Then, it will bridge the concepts of hospitality/hostility aporia in Derrida’s terms and hegemonic masculinity in order to create a basis for the discussion of the gender hostipitality based in Hugh Whitemore’s "Breaking the Code" (1986). As a half-documentary and political play concerned with Alan Turing’s loyalty to Britain after his achievement of breaking the German Enigma code in the World War II, "Breaking the Code" surveys the institutionally hostile attitudes against male homosexuality. By highlighting the dichotomy of host and guest/foreigner in the hostipitality aporia, this study will try to illustrate the destabilisation of patriarchal and Christian-centred gender hierarchies in Whitemore’s play.

The hierarchical relations of and socio-political hegemonies in masculinities concentrate on power relations between privileged or marginalised men; however, quite little interest was given to the relations between the male members of the diasporic communities. Within the framework of migrant minorities – which generally tend to be former colonies of old European empires, this paper will first attempt to (re)locate the exploration of historical masculinities which portrays a man as an independent individual, or a member of a certain group. Highlighting the dead-end of turbulent symbiosis of the colonisers and the colonised, Derrida proposes a questioning of the host/guest dichotomy as well as a problematisation of the terms “hospitality” and “hostility”. Following the above-mentioned relations between men of previously colonised cultures and men of previously colonising powers, this paper will firstly attempt to articulate hostility/hospitality (hostipitality) aporia between male human beings in diasporic circumstances. Then, it will attempt to bridge the concepts of gender, hospitality and hegemonic masculinity to discuss hegemony struggles among the men (author, father, uncle, grandfather) of the Kureishi family as seen in Hanif Kureishi’s "My Ear at His Heart: Reading My Father" (2004).